← Languages overview · The Glossary / Languages / History of English
A horizontal history of the languages, migrations, kingdoms, and cultural encounters that formed English. Follow the line from Celtic-speaking Britain to Middle English. The timeline distinguishes the ancestry of English from languages that influenced it through contact.
The big picture first. Explore the detailed timeline below for dates, people and definitions.
Britain had its own Celtic languages before English arrived.
Germanic settlers brought the speech that became Old English.
Viking contact added words and influenced everyday speech.
Norman rule brought strong French influence; English changed dramatically.
Printing, worldwide contact and new technology helped English spread and evolve.
Period boundaries are approximate; English changed gradually.
Click and drag left or right to explore 2,600 years. On mobile, swipe horizontally.
Reading the chart: Germanic speech developed into Old English; Celtic languages were already spoken in Britain. Latin, Old Norse, and Norman French contributed different kinds of vocabulary and influence. Dates are approximate where language changes were gradual.
Follow the highlighted terms to their definitions below. Each stage adds another layer to the story of English.
Brittonic Celtic languages were spoken across much of Britain before Roman rule. Their descendants include Welsh, Cornish and Breton. Celtic place names survive in Britain, although direct Celtic vocabulary in standard English is comparatively limited.
What is Brittonic? A branch of the Celtic language family formerly spoken in much of Britain; Welsh, Cornish and Breton developed from it.
Julius Caesar led expeditions in 55 and 54 BC; the Roman conquest began in AD 43. Latin became important in the army, towns and administration. Later Christianity and scholarship introduced further Latin vocabulary into English.
What is a loanword? A word adopted from another language. English borrowed Latin words through several different historical routes.
From the fifth century, West Germanic-speaking settlers, including the Angles, Saxons and Jutes, established communities and kingdoms in Britain. Their dialects developed into Old English, the principal ancestor of modern English. Words such as house, bread, water and king descend from Old English.
Where does Frisian fit? Frisian, still spoken in parts of the Netherlands and Germany, is a close linguistic relative of English. It is not the ancestor of English; both descend from related North Sea Germanic speech. See the Geography guide to Friesland, Dutch, and the Faroe Islands →
The mission associated with Augustine of Canterbury began in AD 597. Monasteries and scribes expanded the use of writing and Latin learning. Old English was written in manuscripts, including poetry, law and historical records.
What is a scribe? Someone who copies or writes texts by hand, especially before printing was widely available.
Viking raids began in the late eighth century, followed by conquest and settlement. Old Norse, a North Germanic language, contributed everyday English words such as sky, egg, take, they, them and their. The Danelaw was a major region of Scandinavian influence.
What is North Germanic? The branch of Germanic languages that includes Old Norse and its descendants, such as Icelandic, Faroese, Norwegian, Danish and Swedish. Explore the Norse language history →
After the Norman Conquest of 1066, Norman French became prominent among rulers and in law. English remained widely spoken and evolved into Middle English. French-derived words include court, judge, government and beef. By the fourteenth century English regained standing in administration and literature, including the work of Chaucer.
What is Norman French? A medieval variety of French spoken in Normandy and brought to England by the Norman ruling elite. See Normandy in 1066 and the difference between Norman French, Anglo-Norman and Anglo-French → Explore the French language history →
A useful distinction: English is Germanic by descent, not a blend of equal ancestral languages. Its core grammar and many common words derive from Old English, while its vocabulary reflects centuries of contact.
Start with the simple meaning, then see why the term matters to the history of English. Select a highlighted term on the timeline to jump directly to its explanation.
A family of languages once widely spoken in western Europe, including Britain.
Why it matters: In Britain, Brittonic Celtic languages preceded English; Welsh and Cornish are descendants.
↑ Back to timelineBefore Christ: a way to number years before the conventional starting point of the AD calendar.
Why it matters: 55 BC is 55 years before AD 1. There is no year zero in this system.
↑ Back to timelineAnno Domini, Latin for “in the year of the Lord.”
Why it matters: AD 43 means year 43 in the traditional calendar; CE is the secular equivalent.
↑ Back to timelineA Roman general and political leader.
Why it matters: He led Roman military expeditions to Britain in 55 and 54 BC, but did not establish permanent Roman rule there.
↑ Back to timelineA Roman emperor who ruled from AD 41 to 54.
Why it matters: The Roman invasion and conquest of southern Britain began under his rule in AD 43.
↑ Back to timelineThe process by which Roman armies took control of parts of Britain.
Why it matters: It began in AD 43 and proceeded over decades; not all of Britain was conquered.
↑ Back to timelineThe parts of Britain governed by the Roman Empire.
Why it matters: Roman towns, forts, roads, government and Latin writing shaped the region for centuries.
↑ Back to timelineThe system of officials, soldiers, laws and taxation through which the Roman Empire governed its provinces.
Why it matters: Around AD 410, direct Roman imperial government in Britain ended.
↑ Back to timelineThe language of ancient Rome.
Why it matters: Latin influenced English through Roman contact, Christianity, education, law and scholarship.
↑ Back to timelineOne of the Germanic-speaking peoples associated with settlement in Britain from the fifth century.
Why it matters: The names England and English ultimately derive from the Angles.
↑ Back to timelineGermanic-speaking groups associated with settlement and kingdoms in early medieval Britain.
Why it matters: Their dialects contributed to Old English; the name survives in Essex, Sussex and Wessex.
↑ Back to timelineA people named by Bede among the groups settling early medieval Britain.
Why it matters: Bede associated them particularly with Kent and the Isle of Wight.
↑ Back to timelineThe earliest historical form of the English language, used approximately from the fifth century to the twelfth.
Why it matters: It was West Germanic; words like house, water and bread descend from it.
↑ Back to timelineA Christian mission sent from Rome to the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Kent in AD 597.
Why it matters: Augustine of Canterbury helped establish Roman Christian institutions, encouraging Latin learning and writing.
↑ Back to timelineA monk and missionary who became the first archbishop of Canterbury.
Why it matters: He arrived in Kent in AD 597; he is not Augustine of Hippo.
↑ Back to timelineAn English monk, scholar and historian who lived around AD 673–735.
Why it matters: He wrote the Ecclesiastical History of the English People, completed in AD 731.
↑ Back to timelineA history concerned with the Christian Church.
Why it matters: Bede's Ecclesiastical History of the English People describes the development of Christianity in early England.
↑ Back to timelineA term for Scandinavian seaborne raiders, traders and settlers of the early medieval period.
Why it matters: Viking activity brought speakers of Old Norse into sustained contact with Old English speakers.
↑ Back to timelineA small tidal island off northeastern England, also called Holy Island.
Why it matters: Its monastery was attacked by Vikings in AD 793, a famous early Viking raid.
↑ Back to timelineThe name used for a large Scandinavian army that arrived in England in AD 865.
Why it matters: Its campaigns helped establish Scandinavian rule and settlement in parts of England.
↑ Back to timelineA term relating to medieval Scandinavia and its North Germanic languages.
Why it matters: Old Norse influenced English words such as sky, egg, take, they and them.
↑ Back to timelineAlfred the Great, king of Wessex from AD 871 to 899.
Why it matters: He resisted Viking armies and supported learning and the use of written Old English.
↑ Back to timelineA Viking leader who fought Alfred and later ruled in East Anglia.
Why it matters: After Alfred defeated him in AD 878, Guthrum was baptized and agreements followed.
↑ Back to timelineA historical term for areas of England associated with Scandinavian settlement and distinct legal customs.
Why it matters: It is commonly used for parts of northern and eastern England; its precise historical boundaries are debated.
↑ Back to timelineRelating to Normandy in northern France and its medieval inhabitants.
Why it matters: Norman rulers conquered England in 1066 and brought a French-speaking ruling elite.
↑ Back to timelineThe takeover of England in AD 1066 by William, duke of Normandy, and his forces.
Why it matters: It made Norman French highly influential in English government, law and vocabulary.
↑ Back to timelineThe form of English spoken and written roughly from 1150 to 1500.
Why it matters: It developed from Old English through internal change and contact with Norse and French.
↑ Back to timelineA series of political reforms imposed on King Henry III in AD 1258.
Why it matters: They are associated with a royal proclamation issued in English, French and Latin, illustrating English's public use.
↑ Back to timelineAn English law of AD 1362 requiring court pleadings to be conducted in English.
Why it matters: Court records were still to be entered in Latin; it marked a change from French-language pleadings.
↑ Back to timelineGeoffrey Chaucer, an English poet who lived approximately 1340–1400.
Why it matters: His Canterbury Tales helped demonstrate the literary power of Middle English.
↑ Back to timelineThe religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus.
Why it matters: Christian institutions introduced new Latin religious vocabulary and manuscript learning.
↑ Back to timelineA branch of the Indo-European language family including English, German and Dutch.
Why it matters: English is Germanic by ancestry, despite borrowing many French and Latin words.
↑ Back to timelineA document written by hand rather than printed.
Why it matters: Monks and scribes copied many surviving Old English texts into manuscripts.
↑ Back to timelineA name for arrangements associated with English and Scandinavian rulers.
Why it matters: Agreements involving Alfred and Guthrum helped define political relations after Viking settlement.
↑ Back to timelineAn Anglo-Saxon kingdom in southern England.
Why it matters: Alfred was its king; Wessex became central to the later unification of England.
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